Survey on Sanitary Conditions and Hygiene

Survey on Sanitary Conditions and HygieneABSTRACTMauritius is known as a nirvana island, attracting thousands of tourists each year. During the last two decades this sector has undergone a rapid ontogeny making it one of the most strategic pillars of our economy. Nowadays our country relies a serve on this industry as it is a source of revenue for foreign currency. Our hotels accommodate the major(ip)ity of this population. Hotels depict them with basic readjustment much(prenominal) as lodge and nutrient facilities. wherefore both wrong heed in this sector stack name drastic changes to our economy. The Government did a lot to promote this sector, by amending laws protecting the environment while another(prenominal) government activity atomic number 18 working hard to avoid propagation and controlling communicable diseases. thitherfore hotels swallow an grievous role in maintaining a good hygienic level and in addition in the fight of controlling any diseases or in fections by reporting them to the authorities concerned. Thus a study was carried divulge to study the general salubrious practices of medium coat hotels of Mauritius.Fifty hotels were selected at random throughout the island. Two good deal questionnaires were designed. Questionnaire 1 was designed for my someoneal take hold of to assess the hygienic stipulates of nutriment preparation ara, rooms and other facilities open whereas questionnaire 2 was designed to assess the friendship of the nutrient handlers concerning various issues.After carrying out the surveys, it was found that simple hygienic practices were lacking among the nutrient handlers. Moreover some hotels vigorous conditions were not satisfactory concerning real issues, thus not complying with the recommended laws. Good sanitary facilities were not provided by the hotels management.CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTIONOverviewA hotel is an establishment providing paid lodgement on short clock time basis. It provides ba sic accommodation consisting of room with bed, great deal and bathroom and water deftness. It also provides nutriment for room process daily and has its own restaurant (Wikipedia, 2010). Therefore it essentialiness have a high level of hygiene.Hotels accommodate adults, children and old persons. People coming from all parts of the world. These people atomic number 18 strangers with several(predicate) life styles and variant personal hygiene levels. A good degree of hygiene in the hotel establishment is therefore needed to counteract any hygienic problems that whitethorn arise. Therefore hotels must provide services of good quality with trained personnel.The level of hygiene of staffs must be considered as priority. The workers must cope with all sanitary regulations for themselves to be middling and not to be the ca habituate of any infection spread. Hotels argon regulated because of modifyliness reason and sanitary practices which help to prevent the spread of dis eases and parasites. Inspections are do to ensure they track down safely complying with all regulations such as Public health Act, Safety and health Act or the diet Act. (FAQ, 2010).From a research carried out by Environmental Health Division in the United States, discernions carried out by the inspectors were mainly to have a visual question for overall cleanliness and soundness of edifice construction. Moreover simple inspections were done concerning proper process of dishes like cups and glasses, proper laundering of bed and bath linens. Other inspections performed were to cheek in the maintenance of other room furnishings and for the absence of rodents and insects that are of great importance in preventing diseases. These inspections are effected according to the Tourist Accommodation regulation (Environmental Health, 2010).Hotels are inspected at least once per year and sometimes much more depending on complaints arising from the public. In United States, Fire Marsha l approval is an crucial factor else no permit is delivered (Environmental Health,2010). . In Mauritius hotels license are issued aft(prenominal) approval of an EIA and compliance of all wellness codes.Food hygiene training is an all- measurable(a) factor in hotels. Adopting a safe forage discourse practice is an valuable factor for effective management of food safety. A study carried out by the International Journal of Environmental Health Research on food hygiene training practices by interviewing managers and food handlers. It showed that most of the food handlers had undertaken globe food hygiene training courses but many others did not and still were preparing food, including high risk foods. Pre-training support and on-going supervision was absent, thus limiting its effectiveness. It is believed that food handlers are in many cases causes of food contamination (Taylor and Francis, 2008).Researches effected in Wales, showed many that hotels were criticised for a number o f failures. Numerous high risk foods were kept past their use by dates. Chopping boards were in a state that could no longer be disinfected properly due to their worn state while mouldy plastic loot containers were also spotted. Other hotels were criticised for inadequate level of food hygiene awareness among its staff while another had a leaking cellar roof (Woodrow, 2009). Other researches account that in United States, there were cases where rooms were causes of sickness where housekeeping staff was not properly doing their job (Conrad,2008). In New York, during an inspection it was observed that a hotel room was infested by bed bugs, mice and other vermin (Riverside Studio, 2009).Studies carried out in other parts of the world have demonstrated that hotels often lack a good hygiene level. Carelessness of workers lead to food contamination and other infections. However our country is not the best compared to them. This study is being carried out to investigate the level of hyg iene in our medium size hotels of Mauritius.AIMS AND OBJECTIVESAims of the studyThe aim of the study is to assess the level of hygiene present in medium size hotels of Mauritius. Food handlers are to be assessed concerning food hygiene practices in food processing area. Housekeeping staffs are to be assessed about the importance of hygiene in rooms and also evaluating the level the familiarity of workers concerning communicable diseases. Recommendations were also made for improvements.Objectives of the studyThe objectives of the study are toTaking a attempt size of at least 50 hotels around Mauritius to have an overview evaluation of the level of hygiene over the whole island.Carry out a survey for my personal view of hygiene in hotels.Carry out a second survey to assess the fellowship of workers about hygienic importance in their working go inCompare the sanitary facilities available in these hotels to the law requirements.Analyse the data and to make propose recommendations fo r improving the level of hygiene and the sanitary facilities available.CHAPTER 2 belles-lettres REVIEWHygieneHygiene is described as the science of preserving health in connection to cleanliness. It compromises all those measures necessary to detect and prevent infection and drinking which may be harmful to health. The aim of a good hygiene is to provide consumers with both a good service and safe food. It involves all measures tell to ensure a safe and good quality product and service. Hygiene is an important factor in a business as it helps to protect and also promote ones reputation. In order to have all these, it is a must to comply with all Acts Regulations made in the law (schurmann,2008).Food poisoningFood poisoning is one result of poor hygienic practices. We are surrounded by tiny living organisms that cannot be seen without a microscope. These organisms are called microorganisms. Some are harmless whereas those which are harmful are called pathogens. They are found ever ywhere. An example is Staphylococcus aureus living on the skin as a normal flora. The corresponding bacteria if in contact with food, can cause food poisoning. This is one of the most common food poisoning bacteria. Another example is E.Coli living course in our intestines for breaking down of food, but when in the urinary tract, it causes serious infections (Frazier W, 1995).Contamination can be made by different bacteria such as Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfringens and Clostridium botulinum. The symptoms arising when consuming food harboring these harmful bacteria are familiar to most people. They are namely vomiting, headache, abdominal annoying and diarrhea. There is loss of fluid through vomiting and diarrhea in most severe cases. Those who are more prone to such risk are youngs and elderly or already ill people. Therefore sanitary conditions play an important role in preventing such disease to happen. Necessary precautions must be taken at all stages in food preparation and most important when this concerns bulk production of food as in hotels (JFraser,Microbiology Book).To prevent food poisoning there are three main things that can be donestop the bacteria from multiplying by Bacteria reproduce very if they welcome suitable conditionsmoisture,food,warmth, andtimeTherefore it is important to prevent such conditions by using proper storage.stop bacteria getting onto the foodKeeping food coverHandling food as little as possibleKeeping raw and take a shited foods separateKeeping animals and pests out of the kitchenDisposing of rubbish in covered binsdestroy the bacteria in the foodonly a few bacteria are able to survive temperatures higher than 70o C. This is why it is important to cook food thoroughly.Food such as meat and vegetables should be chopped into small pieces to ensure cooking.Food that is reheated, should be used only once. The left overs should be discarded.Frozen food should be well defrosted before cooking as it may happen that inner part remain uncooked.Food borne diseasesFood-borne disease arises when dirty food is ingested containing a pathogen. This pathogen causes problems only because of the fact that it reproduces inside the human be which provides all necessary factors for its development. Poor food manipulation and noisome sanitation practices are commonly the cause of food-borne diseases in food establishments. One example is the gut bacteria Escherichia coli causing food-borne disease. It may be present through faecal or other source of contamination. E.coli caused 20 deaths and 200 other cases in Lanarkshire, Scotland in 1996 which needed to be treated during the outbreak. This bacteria is particularly dangerous because few bacterial cells, possibly 20 minimum need be ingested by a person to cause severe symptoms( Maff, 2000).A study carried out in Mekelle townspeople in Ethiopia to determine the sanitary conditions in 420 establishments including small hotels showed that latrines, hand washing b asins, proper symbol of solid waste government activity and tap water were available at 96.9% , 57.1 % , 39.2% and 93.6% respectively. Proper dish washing and food storage practices were observed at 46% and 52% respectively. But poor personal hygiene among the workers and food handlers were observed. Staphylococcus aureus and E.Coli were found in utensils at a high level which can only result from poor hygienic practices of the workers. (Ethiop.J.Health Dev. 2007).It was observed that sanitary conditions were well-kept but however there were conditions where there was non adherence in workers. Our country is not an exception to such food-borne outbreaks. The sanitary inspectors of the Ministry of Health are here to shit support to avoid such problems. peeing borne diseasesWater contamination is common worldwide. The category affected is mainly young people and elders having a poor resistant outline. A study was carried out in India about the water hygiene behaviours in hotels an d restaurants few years ago. It showed that contamination in drinking water is made by man and usually due to improper storage, manipulation and serving which leads to serious water borne diseases. It has been noticed that in a drinking water sample of 340, 69.1% were non-potable water and 73.2 % had presence of E.Coli due to human faecal matter. Causes to this outbreak were poor hygiene behaviours, storage and handling practices which was known to deteriorate the water quality. This could have been change by educating the workers and food handlers in these hotels and restaurants. This can result to illness of mainly diarrhoea and vomiting, whereas other symptoms include fever, abdominal pain, headache and giddiness (Pubmed,2003).General sanitary requirements in hotelsPeople normally visit a hotel for short-term basis. There is a continuous f poor of incoming and outgoing people. Different people from different countries stay in same room. Therefore rooms must be well sanitized an d disinfected after each visit. Aeration and external respiration is important. Cleanliness and sanitary practices play an important role in maintaining this balance. It helps to prevent the spread of diseases and parasites not only to tourists but also our general population. Hotels are therefore inspected to make sure that it copes with the law and that they operate safely following the Health Codes (Lockyer,2003).Points that are inspected and controlled for aiming a good cleanliness and soundness of building facility are Absence of pests such as rodents and insectsProper handling and storage of trashProper laundering of bed linens and bedProper washing of utensils such as plates ,cups and glassesNo hazards due to infrastructure of building facilityCloakroom accommodation for staffsProper services such as power, heat, waterGeneral maintainance of area to eliminate potential breeding places for mosquitoes or other vectorsNo domestic animals in areaFire safety and emergency exitsG ood hygiene rulesConsumer satisfaction is prior to all. Thus a good service and hygienic food and water are important. fashions should be well maintained. Housekeeping section plays an important role. It is the backbone of any good hotel. Employees of housekeeping department are made responsible for maintenance, as they have to visit each room every day to set the room for same the guest or the next guest. During their routine visit, they check all the possible electric point, water points, gadgets, while replacing linen, soap, shampoo, towel, etc other important factors are listed below.Sanitary design set forth should be assessed and designed in such a way to reduce health hazards.Personal Hygiene and Food handlers One must be better about hygiene and to start oneself should be hygienic in all aspects and should possess a food handlers security measures.Cleanliness Working environment should be maintained clean. There should be a high standard of cleanliness, most importan t for those handling food stuffs.Awareness knowledge of hygiene practices in work place, communicable diseases awareness. work force Skin Hand is the main route for contamination. Therefore to avoid food poisoning bacteria to get in contact with food, water and soap must be used for washing time to time.Mouth, nose ear it is the route for staphylococcus bacteria to enter food through coughing, sneezing and scratching. Therefore necessary precautions should be taken be avoid these during food preparation.Sanitary conditions in restaurantsA good hygiene is required in food premises to make sure food is safe. It prevents food poisoning and prevent spreading of any communicable diseases resulting from careless personnel or caterers handling food stuffs. Rules such as Cleanliness, Cooking, Chilling and Cross Contamination should be well observed while handling food. Food safety and hygiene practice using Hazard analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) is recommended by WHO and FAO to maintain a good quality of food and services (Silva, 2001). Trained personnel should preferably be employed. Facilities such as proper dustbins, wash hand basins and toilets should be made available for the workers.Points that should be observed in aiming a good and safe food hygiene areood handlers CertificateFloors (smooth clean)Ceilings / Walls maintained properlyUtensils properly serve sterilizedProper sanitary design of kitchenFly proof and rodent proofStorage accommodation of foodsDisposal of waste (Solid and Liquid)Drainage systemWash hand easily availableGood aeration / temperature /HumidityWork area spacious enough for workersShowers facility for workers(Working Day / Night)Hygiene in kitchenAll employees working in food premises either in the task of preparation, handling or serving food should possess a food handler certificate after having followed a medical inspection by a doctor. They should have a satisfactory knowledge of hygiene and cleanliness and be aware of possible problems caused of improper food handling. Health education plays an important role in promoting food and personal hygiene. All staffs should be given appropriate training. Health inspectors have an important work in providing health education by promoting awareness of dangers of food poisoning and poor hygiene practicesMedical certificateThe law states that every food handler involved in food business should be in possession of a validated medical certificate. This food handler certificate is issued by a G.M.O and is valid for only 3 years and has to be revitalizeed each year. This certifies that its owner is in good health and is not suffering from any communicable diseases (Food Regulation, 1999) (refer to Appendix 2).Obtention of medical certificateThe person has to call at the Health lieu of the Ministry Of Health of his region with his national identity card and with two photo passport. An appointment is given for a session of talk on hygienic practices and after due accomplishment, the latter is examined by a Regional Public Health Superintendent (RPHS). Thereafter if the person is observed to be in good health, the certificate is obtained(Food Regulation,1999)Working environmentThe standard of cleanliness of factory and its workers is a reflection of the standard of efficiency of management and the morale of the working population. Provision has been made in the occupational Safety and Health Act 2005 concerning welfare of workers and overcrowding in place of work. It says that a place of work shall not be overcrowded as it can cause risks of health injury of the employees. It is mentioned that the space allowed shall not be less than 11 cubic metres per workers (OSHA, 2005, Appendix 3). Kitchen is an example where there is often overcrowding of workers in hotels.SmokingThe personnel should be well educated and trained about hygiene in a workplace. Employees should not smoke during work, mainly during preparation of food or while handling any food stuffs or utensils. Smoking is prohibited by law in any public places and moreover smoking in a food preparation area can pass diseases from an individual to another. Customers also can be contaminated. Smokers can transfer harmful bacteria from their mouth to food and thereafter, consumers of these foods may ingest these bacteria in turn. These bacteria can be harmless on the carrier but harmful to another person.Communicable diseasesAny person suffering from a communicable disease, boils, sores, acute respiratory infection or bleeding wounds should not be allowed to work in any food premises. A list of these diseases is listed in (Appendix 4). All communicable diseases should also be reported to the Health Offices for treatment. Therefore all employees should possess their food handler certificate and renew it every year by a doctor to ensure that safe food and services are provided to customers. The law has made provisions concerning infective or communicable diseases. I t is said that the occupier of any premises in which a patient resides shall give notice to Sanitary Authority or if visited by a medical practitioner and it is confirmed that the patient is suffering from an infectious disease, health inspector of the region shall made aware of the existence of the disease , name of the patient, the power of the premises and name of the occupier. (Public Health Act,Appendix 5).Preventing food contaminationWe should not forget the motto PREVENTION IS BETTER THAN CURE . Prevention of food contaminations is a must. purloin preventive measures should be taken. Employees should give attention to personal hygiene and the working habits in a hotel kitchen.Body should be kept clean by washing and bathing.Hands should be washed at least on every occasion when entering food preparation zone.Hands and arms should he washed thoroughly using soap and water after each visit to the toilet. reduce use of common towel (use paper that are disposable).Wear clean an d washable overall preferably whiteKeep hands away from mouth, nose ,hair ,ear while workingDo not eat while handling food/ preparationDo not wipe hands on overallUse spoons, forks , tongs instead of hands in preparationAvoid useless blabbering while workingSmoking, spitting should e avoided in working areaObey food safety signsKeep work area cleanStaff facilities maintained in good hygienic conditionsA research carried out in 2004 in a popular hotel of Egypt after a major outbreak of Hepatitis A where 351 tourists was contaminated showed that there was poor sanitation, no proper health education and medical examination. An infected worker with imperfect hand hygiene and who was in contact with sewage-contaminated water was the source of this huge outbreak. (Eurosurveillance, 2006) Concerning food safety, the WHO has initiatives for surveillance programme with objectives of a development of an international food safety network, application of HACCP and development of a safety infor mation system. (WHO, 2004).Storage of foodFood storage is important industrially. Hotels prepare food for hundreds of persons daily. Therefore a good storage system is necessary. Area should be pest proof, warm, clean and not humid. There are three main categories of food requiring different storage methods.Dry food should be kept in a warm place and not humid to avoid spoilage by microorganisms growth.Chilled food should be stored at an appropriate low temperature, and precautions should be taken in case of electricity cut.Canned food should be verified before using. Stock rotation is important concerning canned products. It is important that you rotate and use your food storage (Caldwell M, 2006).Storage of waterAn ample supply of water should be provided with adequate facilities for its storage and adequate protection against contamination. Water is used both in food preparation and rooms for toilets and bathrooms. Many aquatic microorganisms can survive and flourish in water wit h minimal nutrients and can be transferred to people with poor immune system. A study conducted in United States described how gastroenteritis is a common outbreak in hotels. unsettled state flow and stagnation in distribution systems affect the biological stability of drinking water which promotes bacterial accumulation (Dippold L et al, 2000). Therefore it is important that tanks are fitted tightly with lids and that they are regularly cleaned and sampled for chemical and bacteriological analysis.Cleaning frequency is an important factor. The tanks should be verified in case of rusting of any parts and dates should be noted at each cleaning done. (Logan G, 2008). Tanks should be cleaned at least once every trimester for proper maintainance to avoid microorganism proliferation. run out disposalA hotel can be considered as a microcosm in itself having the potential of producing all kinds of waste that is hazardous. Hazardous waste comes in many different shapes and forms it can be liquid, solid, gas or sludge, and more often it is poured down sinks directly or accomplish to regular waste stream (Patel A, 2008). The types of waste generated in hotels and their sources are listed below.However there are two main types of hotel waste, solid(dry),known to be non-biodegradable and liquid(wet),biodegradable wastes. The risk and problem that arises are odour, unaesthetic and it acts as breeding place for vector of diseases (flies, rats, rodents), thus a nuisance to health (Wagh V, 2005).Solid wasteSolid waste is described as materials of no longer value and which is not meant to be discharged through pipework. These dry wastes comprise of plastic bottles, papers, plastic wrappers, HDPE bags etc. These wastes should not be mixed with the wet waste which may produce bad odor and dirty look. They should be disposed in dry places for storage until collection is done (Wagh V, 2005).Liquid wasteLiquid waste is simply discharged in sinks. Wet waste comprises of food and vegetable. Most hotels kitchen sinks are fitted with a garbage disposer (garburator) which is a device installed under the kitchen sink between drain and pipe which shred waste into pieces enough to pass them through plumbing. Grease traps are also fitted to prevent drains to be blocked from fats, oil and grease. Some hotels also provide septic tanks to avoid potential problems that may occur in case there is blockage of main sewage pipes provided by the Government.Elimination of mosquito breeding placesThe hotels management does the necessary to avoid spreading of diseases. Potential breeding places for vectors are eliminated by draining all roofs water accumulation at least twice a week and insecticides are sprayed. All ponds and garden water are regularly checked and all bottles or containers are removed and bushes like the grass are well maintained. The Ministry Of Health also provide services for spraying insecticides on a regular basis (MOH, 2009Health surveillance of tourists Tourist can be responsible for spreading of diseases. One recent case notified was in 2009 where the first case of H1N1 flu virus was detected in a French tourist. The Ministry Of Health has provided officers for this specific duty. Health surveillance Officers are responsible to contact every incoming passengers in order to know their health condition on arrival to Mauritius. The hotel management plays an important role as they need to report any kind of communicable diseases occuring in their residence (MOH Health, 2009).The Ministry Of Health has a list of infectious and communicable diseases that are controlled closely as shown in (Appendix 4).CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGYMethodologyA survey was carried out and two questionnaires were designed where one was for personal view and opinion about the working place and food handlers and the second, to assess the workers and their knowledge to food hygiene.50 hotel in all were chosen throughout Mauritius. Random survival of the fittest wil l give a broader view of hygiene in hotels around the island. List of hotel was obtained from the Tourism Authority at Port-Louis and some details obtained at the Municipality and Health offices.The QuestionnairesQuestionnaire for Personal View of Foodhandlers, Checklist for Kitchen and environment (room, garden, Swimming pool). (Appendix 6)Questionnaire for personal hygiene for the workers (Appendix 7)The questionnaire (Appendix 6) is a checklist concerning the number of workers, personal hygiene at sight, state of preparation area and toilet in the hotel kitchen. The workers who were pointed were mainly cooks, waiters and maids who work in hotel restaurant.A walkthrough was done where access was granted by the management in the kitchen to assess the level of hygiene of the workers and to inspect if they practice personal hygiene. The toilets were also seen and mess rooms. The second part of the questionnaire was dedicated for rooms and the environment such as garden.Points that we re observed during the walkthrough inspection wereNo of military groupSanitary conditionsWater availabilityLightingVentilationRefuse disposalToilets and bathroomsThe second questionnaire was designed for food handlers to assess their knowledge about hygienic practices and food poisoning.CHAPTER 4 RESULTSResults and FindingsPossession of food handlers certificate among workersGeneral personal hygiene among workersThe below bar chart shows the general personal hygiene maintained among workers at work and it can be concluded that 98% of them keep their hands clean, 94% keep their fingernails clean, 75% have their hair covered, 100% keep their body clean. But it could also be observed that only 25% of them keep their overall clean and 13% of them had nail varnish.Wall conditions of kitchensThe wall conditions of the kitchens were surveyed and was found to have the following structures 82% of them are waterproof, 88% can be observed to be clean, 93% are washable, 82% are without crevic es, 94% are painted white and 86% of them are tiled up to 2 meters from floor.VentilationFrom figure 6, it can be seen that 83% of the hotels had adopted a good ventilation system using air conditioner for ease of workers while 17% of them did not have appropriate ventilation system.Lighting patternure 7 describes the lighting condition in the preparation area. 78% of the hotels were seen to provide a good lighting system for the workers and 22% had lighting system not satisfactory.Provision for refuse disposalRefuse disposal availability was surveyed and was found that 50% had foot operated pedal bins,70% of the garbage bins were cleaned and disinfected regularly,75% had their bins covered while 95% removed them daily.Room managementRoom conditions were observed to be at 72% satisfactory. 28% was seen to have a bad room management.Frequency of changing Blanket on bedFrom Fig 10. it can be observed that 80% of hotels changes bed blanket regularly,5% on a weekly basis and 15% when i t seems necessary to do so that is when seen dirty. keister and toilets sanitary conditionsFrom the result obtained during the survey, it has been found that toilets and bathrooms in rooms are at 70% and 75% clean respectively..Detergents DistributionThe figure below gives detail of the type of detergents commonly used in hotels for sanitizing and cleaning purposes and their percentage used.Knowledge of food poisoningDuring the survey it was observed that only 40% of workers interviewed had a satisfactory knowledge of food poisoning and answered yes to the question whereas the other part could not give explanation food poisoning.Validity of food handlers certificate Professional training by employerFrom the survey carried out among workers, it was found that among the 70% of workers who were in possession of a food handlers certificate, only 55% of them were valid while 15% of them were

Kautilyas Arthashastra and War

Kautilyas Arthashastra and strugglef beCHAPTER IINTRODUCTION1. Arthashastra Kautilya on War.Kautilya was a prop championnt of a welf be produce yet definitely encouraged stir of contendfargon for preserving the reason of the differentiate. Kautilyas Arthashastra is a hold up of pure logic, non ta fairy any religious aspect into account. It deals with the various(a) subjects directly and with s constitute like sharpness. The Arthashastra tot anyy contains 5363 Sutras, 15 books, 150 chapters, and 180 Sections. The 15 Books contained in the Arthashastra cease be sort out in the succeeding(a) manner Book 1, as a book on Fundamentals of Management, Book 2 dealing with frugalals, Books 3, 4 and 5 on Law, Books 6, 7, 8 describes Foreign Policies. Books 9 to 14 concerns subjects on War. The 15th book deals with the methodology and devices economical consumptiond in report the Arthashastra. What is interesting to n angiotensin-converting enzyme is that the topic of p ress out of contend is the withstand subject in the Arthashastra. War is everlastingly the last option. However, a war in certain cases is unavoidable, hence, prep and maintenance of the army, the right moves in the battle field and warfare strategies e really(prenominal) are subjective in the defence of a coun rise, subjects which Kautilya tackles with the extra sensory precision. economics in nationcraft and War. Kautilya thought that the possession of agency and happiness in a ground makes a force superior hence a fag should always strive to augment his power. Kautilya propounded that war is natural for a tell apart. He said that, baron is strength and strength changes the minds2.Economic power has helped shape domaincraft. This element of power is really(prenominal) flexible. Thi s aspect of the power is unity which Arthashastra concentrates on and has gameylighted Artha, the economics of the reconcile in the pursuit of power. The interest for power is drive n by the satisf accomplishment of the king and his subjects in all the spheres of material surface existence and social acceptance. This keep be achieved by a progressive and robust economy. A corollary to this item is that the economics of a utter can be used to progress the tempt of the postulate over inter tribeal issues and in like manner used to augment the war waging voltage of the assure.Whether a rural area has a large or weakened armed forces, its leadership does control economics. Economics is a great tool to create conditions for go on diddleion or force a commonwealth to change behaviour. There are backwardnesss prevelant in the pursuit of sound economy to further the war waging cap aptitude of a state and in turn achieve te power . the village of these constraints is the puzzle which Kautilya unraveled d iodine Arthashastra.2. Kautilya bes that for a major power to attain these terce goals he mustiness create wealth, score armies and should co nquer the realms and enlarge the size of his state. This is quite interesting because he in a way does believe that a states high quality is in its military machine and economic might which is what later philosophers and rulers earn followed. In the case of war, Kautilya advocates the King to be endly involved in the science of war.3. Classifications of War. Kautilya advocated trinity types of war Open war, Concealed war and the obtuse War3. Open war he describes as the war fought amongst states, concealed war as one which is similar to guerilla war and Silent war which is fought on a continued innovation in human face the kingdom so that the power of the King does non get diluted. He believed that thither were three types of kings who go into warfare and it is important to understand the indication between the types of kings and the appropriate warfare outline to be selected.4. Kautilya propounded that state is not considered a massive entity still as one which combin es various internal constituents the king , the fortified city ,the coun exertionside, the exchequer and the army. The power with which a state can promote its own interests over opposite states in the neighbourhood depends on how close to ideal the internal constituents are. The four devices Kautilya used for deriving serviceable advice were relative power, deviations from the ideal, classification by the type of motivation and the influence of the unpredictable. This is the core what Arthashastra addresses as the essay is to resolve all the constraints that arise in the quest of the state to pretend ascendency and enhance its power.5. War fighting tactics. Kautilya was overly very harsh in narrating the lay claim methods of fighting a war and use of various tools to reduce the strength of a state. Kautilya wrote in detail explaining the war strategy because he was a strong proponent of social structure. He vehemently defends the state and believes that religion and morals a re vatical to serve the state. In Kautilyas belief of war, chivalry does not have any place and he is a realist. Kautilya in his Arthashastra and believes that war is a style to an end for wealth and stability. He provided the understanding to resolve all the constraints which emerge to achieve the ends. Kautilya has argued that the primary constraint that a state facial gestures is the economic constraints and galore(postnominal) a war has been lost for want of resources. The Arthashastra has guided the king in eliminating the constraints, primarily the economic constraints in the furtherance of its interests. The use of economic strength as a means of statess power has also been highlighted by Kautilya.6. Kautilya also took the social structure and Kings power as disposed(p) and never challenged it. His focusing was not on war per se but on the strategy and tactics of war which elaborates in his work. In describing his opinion on war, he has been very right in proverb tha t a state which desires power is in war all the snip and economy is the close definitive aspect which governs the quest of the state for power.CHAPTER IIMETHODOLOGYStatement of the Problem1. The aim of this report card is to investigate the modus operandi for the stoppage of the economic constraints, imposed in an armed meshing during the Arthashastra stopover and its concurrence in the present measure.Justification for the Study2. Constraints in War. Armed conflict has numerous facets attached to it and it is not a mere try and baffle as the folklore puts it to be. The constraints as they emerge, from the time of planning of a battle till the time the armies face each other at the outbreak of the hostilities, are what the commandant in the battlefield has to counter and work out the resolution of each of the prevalent constraints. The constraints as defined for the evaluation of this research is akin to the risks or uncertainties as they present themselves in the battl efield and which may govern the outcome of the war or the labor of the true power of the nation state. The constraints present as open constraints and also intangible blocks which have to be resolved in order to progress the war and ultimately achieve victory. The tangible constraints can be classified as the economic requirements for war effort to sustain and the logistics support required for the armed forces and the intangibles are morale, leadership and the training of the troops.3. Evaluating Constraints. The fog of war has prompted strategists without report to grapple with the concept of constraints/risk and methodologies for its assessment. There go out always be uncertainty. It often provide be immeasurable. The very nature of war and conflict and the progressively complex strategic environment ensures that this is so. Is risk/constraint assessment simply the .comfort level that elderberry bush planners experience as they assess key variables? 6 Strategic risks thu sly is the probability of failure in achieving a strategic objective at an acceptable cost. The concept is simple to articulate and easy to understand. But, as in war, the simplest things in strategy are the most operose.4. Constraints Management Arthashastra . The Arthashastra is essentially a treatise on the art of political relation and specially focuses on aspects of internal administration and foreign policy. It has been translated as Science of Politics, Treatise on Polity or the Science of Political Economy. These have been translated over time in the subjects of Timeless Laws of Politics, Economy, Diplomacy and War. Kautilyas treatise encapsulates in many ways, the complexness of the modern time with the constraints faced during war being the very(prenominal) as were relevant in older times. The problems that existed then, persist in a more than than general and magnified manner in the modern- daytime world. The principles of Constraint resolution in the armed forc es strategy followed by Kautilya are also relevant in the contemporary world. Study of Kautilyas war strategy leave behind provide an insight into the goledge of warfare in antediluvian patriarch India and would also throw up important aspects of the constraints to warfare in the modern world, besides enhancing understanding and pride in our country and its judgements.5. Hypothesis. The growth of the nation state has been establish on the gain of the economic power and the shift in the economic potential. This has resulted in the economics of war emerging as the mavin most important constraint in the war waging potential of a nation state. The concurrence of the economic power with the military power of a nation state has been the cornerstone of the present day world powers. Kautilya in Arthashastra had realised the prominence of economy in the statecraft and the war strategy. How relevant those postulates are in the modern day strength of a nation state? The ability of the sta te to exert its influence for the furtherance of the depicted object interests has been defined by the resolution of the economic constraints. The military has become the national instrument that can enforce the economic objective and thus the military power of a nation. Therefore the social occasion of the economic power and the resolution of the economic constraints of a nation are primary for the acceptance of a Nation-State as a world power.6. Scope. The scope of this paper is restricted to study and abstract of the economics of war. The financial constraints in the war potential of the State and the methods adopted by Kautilya to resolve those constraints. The study will undertake to identify possible constraints in the war potential of the State and present the relevance of Arthashastra in constraint management with the modern day constraint resolution. It will be further endeavoured to understand the lacunae in the present day approach and investigate the Arthashastra for solutions. There after(prenominal), the paper will focus on assessing the perceived link between economic power of the state and the military power and how one is derived from the other. The resolution of the economic constraints as practiced during Kautilyas time and in the modern times will also be discussed.7. Methods of Data Collection. There are many books written translating the Arthashastra. Modern Warfare strategy has many parallels in the theories as propounded by Kautilya. question on this topic will be mostly based on the translations of Arthashastra and its relevance with the modern day approach to the resolution of the economic constraints in the war waging potential of the nation state. Sources are plausibly to include the pursuit-(a) Books written by eminent authors and translation of the Arthashastra by various authors.(b) Articles in periodicals and Journals.(c) Reports of International strategists and researchers on Arthashastra.(d) Websites featuring proceedin gs of various conferences and meetings on the subject.(f) Papers published or presented by various organisations on the subject.8. Organisation of the Dissertation. This study is envisaged to be organised under the following chapters-(a) Introduction.(b) Methodology.(c) Constraints in warfare -Drawing parallels with Arthashastra.(d) Arthashastra approach to economics of war.(e) Derivation of phalanx power from economic power.(f) Resolution of economic constraints to war potential.(g) ConclusionCHAPTER IIICONSTRAINTS IN state of war DRAWING PARALLELS WITH ARTHASHASTRA1. Interests of the nation state. The behavior of a nation-state is rooted in the pursuit, protection, and promotion of its interests. The interests of the nation state are to be accurately identified to understand a great deal of its behavior vis--vis other states and actors in the international system. All states have common interests like its territorial dominion, its people, and its sovereignty. While forces outside(a) their own boundaries affect all countries large and powerful, small and weak, a certain level of sovereignty is critical to the belief of national interests. A country that is unable to exercise effective control over its territory and its peoples, relatively free from the intrusion of other nation-states into its internal affairs, is wanting(p) in this critical element of sovereignty. War is an instrument of national policy, albeit a violent one.2. Arthashastra deal point. Kautilyas Arthashastra was a science of politics intended to teach a wise king how to govern. In this work, Kautilya offers wide-ranging and truly fascinating discussions on war and diplomacy, including his tender to have his king become a world conqueror, his analysis of which kingdoms are natural allies and which are inevitable enemies, his unstrainedness to make treaties he knew he would break, his school of thought of tacit war or a war of blackwash against an unsuspecting king, his approva l of secret agents who killed opposite leaders and sowed discord among them, his experience of women as weapons of war, his use of religion and superstition to bolster his troops and demoralize enemy soldiers, the spread of disinformation, and his humane treatment of conquered soldiers and subjects.3. Kautilya thought there was a science of warfare, presumably segmentation of a larger science of politics. Kautilya certified the king not to leave military matters entirely to others Infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants should carry out practice in the arts outside (the city) at sun-rise. The king should constantly attend to that, and should frequently gaze their arts.9 Open war is obvious, and concealed war is what we call guerrilla warfare, but silent war is a kind of fighting that no other thinker could propound and thus Kautiliya was much ahead of his times and this makes his thinking relevant even like a shot. Silent war is a kind of warfare with another kingdom in whic h the king and his ministersand unknowingly, the peopleall act publicly as if they were at field pansy with the opposing kingdom, but all the while secret agents and spies are assassinating important leaders in the other kingdom, creating divisions among key ministers and classes, and spreading propaganda and disinformation.4. Kautilya advised the king that When he is superior in troops, when secret instigations are make (in the enemys camp), when precautions are taken about the season, (and) when he is on land suitable to himself, he should engage in an open fight. In the reverse case, (he should resort to) concealed fighting.125. overriding the constraints. Speaking of justice to an enemy about to conquer is the last tactic of the weak, willing to try all tactics, even desperate ones, Kautilya make up a powerful speech to be given by a weak king to the king about to conquer, a speech offering a miscellanea of moral exhortation and arguments based on the self-interest of the con queror. In this speech, Kautilya depicted an envoy saying to the conquering king that he should accept a treaty and pay regard to his spiritual and material well-being that conquering a kingdom willing to surrender on reasonable terms is an impious act that battle is not in the conquering kings self-interest, since to fight with brave men who have given up all hope of life is a intoxicating deed and the conqueror will lose troops and material good that such a conquest will only unite his enemies all the more that the conquering kings enemies are only waiting for him to be weakened in order to attack that he himself is risking death that war itself in which men on each side die is an impious act and that he should not listen to enemies masquerading as friends who are giving him false advice as to his real self-interest.13 Kautilya exhibit the realities of diplomacy and war as well as the ineffectiveness of moral pleas when confronted by a superior power. Kautilya wanted legions, b ut he wanted them preceded by elephants, which acted in the ancient world a bit like modern tanks.6. Kautilya considered the treasury most valuable in raising an army, procuring equipment (including elephants), and preparing for war. later the treasury and the army, Kautilya pore on the importance of the fort, on which depends the treasury, the army, silent war, restraint of ones own party, use of armed forces, receiving confederative troops, and warding off enemy troops and woodwind tribes. And in the absence seizure of a fort, the treasury will fall into the hands of enemies, those with forts are not exterminated.157. Constraint resolution. Kautilya was reproducible in ranking the importance of the treasury, the army, and forts, but it seems that the people, or a popular army, are the most important of all. As he put it, one should seek a fortress with men.198. Kautilya apparently believed that an army of kshatriyas was best warriors were supposed to find their highest duty an d pleasure by dying in battle. Kautilya clearly argued that sections of the army should consist mostly of persons from the same region, caste or profession. It was a very clever idea to be mooted as common sense, shows that he is suggesting that men of an army should know one another, that an army of friends fighting side by side is the most difficult to defeat. On the subject of the kings location during battle, for example, he wrote A bare army, without standards, consisting of warriors think as fathers, sons and brothers, should be the place for the king. An elephant or a chariot should be the vehicle for the king, guarded by cavalry. (Kautilya wanted a man who looked like the king to lead the army into battle.) And thus, a kings power, for Kautilya, is in the end bind to the power and popular energy of the people, without which a king can be conquered, for not being rooted among his subjects, a king becomes easy to uproot.20 Although Kautilya wrote of using money to raise an army and even of purchasing heroic men, he was not advocating mercenaries who fought only for pay, but he was merely outlining the cost of paying, supplying, and feeding soldiers. He believed that heritable troops are better than hired troops in other words, troops made of men born in the kingdom and thus allegiant to the king since birth are better than strangers fighting for money.9. Contemporary school of thought. While military power may be the primary tool a nation uses to wage war, it is not the only one available. Military power, together with economic and political power, may be used to impose ones will upon an opponent. These other elements of national power, such as economic or political, are linked with military action at the national strategic level and passed to the operational and tactical levels of military actions through constraints or restrictations on the use of force. Nevertheless, these other elements of power are not fully integrated at the lower levels of w ar. In the bolshie tradition, Svechin included the possibility of war on economic and social fronts as well as on a military front. 21 The actions along all fronts must be fully integrated and in accord with the political goals of the struggle. The use of diplomatic efforts to foreclose and enemy alliance or a second distant (military) front and economic efforts to insure sufficient financial resources for the conduct of combat operations.10. While Kautilya had propounded the postulates for constraint management in warfare in the ancient times but the relevance with the contemporary thought is startling. Military power being only one of the instruments of national power has been highlighted by Kautilya and the same thought is keeping today. The resolution of the constraints and overriding of the bottlenecks faced by the commander in the battlefield have their genesis in the employment of all the instruments of national power towards conflict resolution and that is why Arthashast ra has been regarded as the epitome of statecraft in all the spheres. If decisive military force is used only as a last resort, after protracted diplomatic, economic, political, and even military power short of actual war have failed to break the will of the enemy, a quick and well primed(p) application of military force would leave little opportunity for the implementation of further unsoldierly initiative. One must never lose sight of the boilersuit objective of warfare which is to get the enemy to do ones will. This may be best achieved through a thoughtful and complete linkage of all elements of national power. With that linkage brought down to the operational level, chances for a long-lasting victory will growing dramatically. This is where Arthashastra and the present day war strategy are concomitant.CHAPTER IVARTHASHASTRA get down TO ECONOMICS OF WAR1. Economics of the nation state. Economic power has become a very powerful tool to enhance the capabilities of a nation an d limit those of an adversary. However, as nations become more intertwined through globalisation, they become more vulnerable to disruptions in their economies, manmade or natural, due to reliance on foreign sources of raw materials, components, undone products, or key services. A nation can also use its economy to try to defeat another power. The nation can use its economic power in attempts to ruin a targets capability to take certain actions or destroy its ability to project power. Although physical defeat of the enemy is more often associated with military operations, economic means are also viable to support the liquidation of a nations ability to take certain actions.2. A nations ability to provide resources to research, develop, and further educate their people can lead to new applications of science and intimacy to solve problems in other words, technology. Technological advances can deputise existing weapon and support systems to enhance or expand war fighting capabili ty. getting technology through a nations own human resources or with capital resources can allow the nation to make great leaps in economic progress.3. Arthashastra view of economy as precursor to military power. Kautilya emphasised that, the three kinds of powers intellectual, compelling, motivating are essentially and unavoidably required to be developed and employed in a manner that they complement each other. None can be used in isolation. According to Kautilya the main aim of any state is to increase ones power, mainly at the cost of the natural enemy. This increase in power is essentially the first step in the realisation of the ambition to conquer the world. However, Kautilya also specifically mentions that the most important factor that must be weighed before starting is the gain expected from the confrontation and the losses likely to be suffered. Normally, the gain that is to accrue should far outweigh the losses in men, animals and expenses in cash and grains. Thus Kauti lya professed a thoughtful approach to the cause of expanding ones kingdom and always unplowed the focus on resolution of the economic constraints in the war waging capability of the state. He has also stressed that the king is duty bound to ensure, that the people of his kingdom are happy and content, because, a happy kingdom is likely to be prosperous. He further states that a prosperous and wealthy state is unlikely to go for to another even in case of a conflict.4. Kosa or the Treasury. The fifth most important element of the state is the treasury according to Kautilya. All activities of the state depend on finance and therefore sufficient management needs to be given to the treasury. Kautilya considered the treasury most valuable in raising an army, procuring equipment (including elephants), and preparing for war. After the treasury and the army, Kautilya focused on the importance of the fort, on which depends the treasury, the army, silent war, restraint of ones own party, u se of armed forces, receiving allied troops, and warding off enemy troops and forest tribes. Kautilya lays down various causes that may contribute to the growth or reduction of the treasury. Kautilya says The wealth of the state shall be one acquired lawfully either by heritage or by the kings own efforts. He further adds that the treasury should be rich enough to withstand any calamity especially when the state has no income for a long time.5. Managing the economy for power Arthashastra approach. Management of the state necessitated realism, not idealism. It required the prudence and precise calculation of measures undertaken alongside their short and long-term consequences, which hypothesise the theoretical beginnings of economicsWealth will slip out-of-door from that childish man who constantly consults the stars the onlyguiding star of wealth is itself what can the stars of the switch do? Man, without wealth, does not get it even after a hundred attempts. Just as elephants a re needed to catch elephants, so does wealth arrive more wealth.22Public welfare was contingent upon the strength of the state. The last mentioned was achieved byinternal development or territorial expansion, both of which were realized through power.24 Hence, the anthesis motive of the state was the never-ending pursuit of artha. It is only after dedicating its energies to this end, can the state or king then move on to fulfilling dharma and kama. As such, the Arthashastra provides extensive coverage on the overall economy, which includes infrastructure (roadwork, irrigation, forestry, and fortification), weights and measurements, labor and employment, calling and trade, commodities and agriculture, land use and property laws, money and coinage, interest rates and loan markets, tariffs and taxes, and government expenditures and the treasury. The high level of detail dedicated to these areas demonstrates the remarkable organisation and centralisation of the state idealised in th e Arthashastra, and it also supports the view that the information contained in the text is a compilation of works that have endured over long periods of footrace and error.6. The Arthashastra is surprisingly calculated on every minute detail and economic function the exact number of panas25 is provided for every salaried position, legal ramification, commodity, and livestock. Economics was set through such central planning and the highly detailed attempts at identifying the optimal add up for every economic function stresses this constant strive towards efficiently improving the overall utility and welfare of social club. Along with prudence and careful calculation, the state is advised to be extremely active or energetic in managing the economy, as the Arthashastra states that, The root of material well-being is legal action, of material disaster its reverse. In the absence of activity, there is certain destruction of what is obtained and of what is not yet received. By act ivity reward is obtained, and one also secures abundance of riches.Similarly, a different verse in the same chapter advocates the direction of such activity towards improving public welfare. though seemingly liberal and humanitarian, this too had a very important economic basis. Hence, dedicating resources to the lower rungs of society also strengthened the peripheries of the state, which in turn actuated territorial expansion. Furthermore, providing amenities for the poor masses indirectly stimulated population growth, and thus, the overall growth of the state and economy in the long run. Hence, there is a quid of truth in the verses in which the Arthashastra states that it is the people who constitute a kingdom like a barren cow, a kingdom without people yields nothing. The emphasis on population growth for indirectly achieving economic prosperity is also hinted elsewhere in the text, in which the Arthashastra strongly prohibits premarital sex and adultery and instead encourages magnificence via rewards and punishments framed within the legal system. Central planning was directed towards maintaining stability, order, and efficiency in the economy.7. Kautilyas belief and Aim of Economy Artha can therefore be summed up as Peace can be maintained by making war difficult and costly for the enemy through the balance of power achieved through alliances.8. Contemporary perspective. Whilst the basis of exerting power of any country has been that of expansion in the last xx odd years the focus has shifted from territorial expansion to one of economic expansion. There are a number of examples of countries or coalitions trying to exert crush on other countries to ensure the protection of their own economic interests. The engagements between all the countries of the world bear testimony to the fact that almost all parties have been trying to protect their own interests in dealing with others. The principles enumerated by Kautilya in his policy of Samdhi or Treaty h ave almost universal application today. Countries today are indulging in more and more treaties or accords than ever before to safeguard their own interests.9. Kautilya also mentions that war should be declared as a last resort and that all other means like sama, dana, and bheda (conciliation, gifts/bribes, dissension) should be implemented towards averting war. In other words Kautilya prefers putting military press on the enemy without breaking the two-eyed violet. These very principles have been dictated down in Chapter I of the United Nations Charter, where article I states To maintain international peace and security, and to that end to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or dependency of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace.10. This brings forth the justification of the well being of the society as the predominant factor since the ancient times till date. Also, the diversion of the resources meant for the well being of the society towards the war waging potential without the victimization of all the options towards resolution is being despised upon. This was relevant during Kautilyas times and is as relevant today. Though economy is a major constraint in the war waging potential of a nation state, and all efforts are made by the state to strengthen this instrument of national power prior to gaining the military ascendency, it is also proving to be a major restraint in controllong the expansionist attitude of states since ancient times.CHAPTER VDERIVATION OF MILITARY POWER FROM ECONOMIC POWER1. Economic power. Economic power can be defined more often than not as the capacity to influence other states through economic means. It is composed of a countrys indus trial base, natural resources, capital, technology, geographic position, health system and education system.2. Military power. Military power is the capacity to use force or the threat of force to influence other states. Components of military power include number of divisions, armaments, organisation, training, equipment, readiness, deployment and morale.3. proponent is an elusive concept. In the historical perspective, military power has been paramount and economic power a luxury. This has slowly changed to the point that the two roles have become interchangeable. A countrys military capability is derived from its economic capacity. A countrys economic capacity also deKautilyas Arthashastra and WarKautilyas Arthashastra and WarCHAPTER IINTRODUCTION1. Arthashastra Kautilya on War.Kautilya was a proponent of a welfare state but definitely encouraged war for preserving the power of the state. Kautilyas Arthashastra is a book of pure logic, not taking any religious aspect into acco unt. It deals with the various subjects directly and with razor like sharpness. The Arthashastra totally contains 5363 Sutras, 15 books, 150 chapters, and 180 Sections. The 15 Books contained in the Arthashastra can be classified in the following manner Book 1, as a book on Fundamentals of Management, Book 2 dealing with Economics, Books 3, 4 and 5 on Law, Books 6, 7, 8 describes Foreign Policies. Books 9 to 14 concerns subjects on War. The 15th book deals with the methodology and devices used in writing the Arthashastra. What is interesting to note is that the topic of war is the last subject in the Arthashastra. War is always the last option. However, a war in certain cases is unavoidable, hence, preparation and maintenance of the army, the right moves in the battle field and warfare strategies all are essential in the defence of a country, subjects which Kautilya tackles with the extra sensory precision.Economics in Statecraft and War. Kautilya thought that the possession of powe r and happiness in a state makes a king superior hence a king should always strive to augment his power. Kautilya propounded that war is natural for a state. He said that, Power is strength and strength changes the minds2.Economic power has helped shape statecraft. This element of power is very flexible. Thi s aspect of the power is one which Arthashastra concentrates on and has highlighted Artha, the economics of the state in the pursuit of power. The quest for power is driven by the rapture of the king and his subjects in all the spheres of material well being and social acceptance. This can be achieved by a progressive and robust economy. A corollary to this fact is that the economics of a state can be used to progress the influence of the state over international issues and also used to augment the war waging potential of the state.Whether a nation has a large or small military, its leadership does understand economics. Economics is a great tool to create conditions for further action or force a nation to change behaviour. There are constraints prevelant in the pursuit of sound economy to further the war waging capability of a state and in turn achieve te power . the resolution of these constraints is the enigma which Kautilya unraveled through Arthashastra.2. Kautilya presents that for a King to attain these three goals he must create wealth, have armies and should conquer the kingdoms and enlarge the size of his state. This is quite interesting because he in a way does believe that a states superiority is in its military and economic might which is what later philosophers and rulers have followed. In the case of war, Kautilya advocates the King to be closely involved in the science of war.3. Classifications of War. Kautilya advocated three types of war Open war, Concealed war and the Silent War3. Open war he describes as the war fought between states, concealed war as one which is similar to guerilla war and Silent war which is fought on a continued bas is inside the kingdom so that the power of the King does not get diluted. He believed that there were three types of kings who go into warfare and it is important to understand the distinction between the types of kings and the appropriate warfare strategy to be selected.4. Kautilya propounded that state is not considered a massive entity but as one which combines various internal constituents the king , the fortified city ,the countryside, the treasury and the army. The power with which a state can promote its own interests over other states in the neighbourhood depends on how close to ideal the internal constituents are. The four devices Kautilya used for deriving practical advice were relative power, deviations from the ideal, classification by the type of motivation and the influence of the unpredictable. This is the core what Arthashastra addresses as the endeavour is to resolve all the constraints that arise in the quest of the state to gain ascendency and enhance its power.5 . War fighting tactics. Kautilya was also very harsh in narrating the exact methods of fighting a war and use of various tools to reduce the strength of a state. Kautilya wrote in detail explaining the war strategy because he was a strong proponent of social structure. He vehemently defends the state and believes that religion and morals are supposed to serve the state. In Kautilyas concept of war, chivalry does not have any place and he is a realist. Kautilya in his Arthashastra and believes that war is a means to an end for wealth and stability. He provided the understanding to resolve all the constraints which emerge to achieve the ends. Kautilya has argued that the primary constraint that a state faces is the economic constraints and many a war has been lost for want of resources. The Arthashastra has guided the king in eliminating the constraints, primarily the economic constraints in the furtherance of its interests. The use of economic strength as a means of statess power has also been highlighted by Kautilya.6. Kautilya also took the societal structure and Kings power as given and never challenged it. His focus was not on war per se but on the strategy and tactics of war which elaborates in his work. In describing his opinion on war, he has been very right in saying that a state which seeks power is in war all the time and economy is the most definitive aspect which governs the quest of the state for power.CHAPTER IIMETHODOLOGYStatement of the Problem1. The aim of this paper is to investigate the modus operandi for the resolution of the economic constraints, imposed in an armed conflict during the Arthashastra period and its concurrence in the present times.Justification for the Study2. Constraints in War. Armed conflict has many facets attached to it and it is not a mere attack and capture as the folklore puts it to be. The constraints as they emerge, from the time of planning of a battle till the time the armies face each other at the outbreak of th e hostilities, are what the commander in the battlefield has to counter and work out the resolution of each of the prevalent constraints. The constraints as defined for the evaluation of this research is akin to the risks or uncertainties as they present themselves in the battlefield and which may govern the outcome of the war or the projection of the true power of the nation state. The constraints present as tangible constraints and also intangible blocks which have to be resolved in order to progress the war and ultimately achieve victory. The tangible constraints can be classified as the economic requirements for war effort to sustain and the logistics support required for the armed forces and the intangibles are morale, leadership and the training of the troops.3. Evaluating Constraints. The fog of war has prompted strategists throughout history to grapple with the concept of constraints/risk and methodologies for its assessment. There will always be uncertainty. It often will b e immeasurable. The very nature of war and conflict and the increasingly complex strategic environment ensures that this is so. Is risk/constraint assessment simply the .comfort level that senior planners experience as they assess key variables? 6 Strategic risks then is the probability of failure in achieving a strategic objective at an acceptable cost. The concept is simple to articulate and easy to understand. But, as in war, the simplest things in strategy are the most difficult.4. Constraints Management Arthashastra . The Arthashastra is essentially a treatise on the art of government and specially focuses on aspects of internal administration and foreign policy. It has been translated as Science of Politics, Treatise on Polity or the Science of Political Economy. These have been translated over time in the subjects of Timeless Laws of Politics, Economy, Diplomacy and War. Kautilyas treatise encapsulates in many ways, the complexity of the modern times with the constraints fac ed during war being the same as were relevant in older times. The problems that existed then, persist in a more widespread and magnified manner in the contemporary world. The principles of Constraint resolution in the Military strategy followed by Kautilya are also relevant in the contemporary world. Study of Kautilyas war strategy will provide an insight into the knowledge of warfare in ancient India and would also throw up important aspects of the constraints to warfare in the modern world, besides enhancing understanding and pride in our country and its thinkers.5. Hypothesis. The growth of the nation state has been based on the gain of the economic power and the shift in the economic potential. This has resulted in the economics of war emerging as the single most important constraint in the war waging potential of a nation state. The concurrence of the economic power with the military power of a nation state has been the cornerstone of the present day world powers. Kautilya in A rthashastra had realised the prominence of economy in the statecraft and the war strategy. How relevant those postulates are in the modern day strength of a nation state? The ability of the state to exert its influence for the furtherance of the national interests has been defined by the resolution of the economic constraints. The military has become the national instrument that can enforce the economic objective and thus the military power of a nation. Therefore the role of the economic power and the resolution of the economic constraints of a nation are primary for the acceptance of a Nation-State as a world power.6. Scope. The scope of this paper is restricted to study and analysis of the economics of war. The financial constraints in the war potential of the State and the methods adopted by Kautilya to resolve those constraints. The study will attempt to identify possible constraints in the war potential of the State and present the relevance of Arthashastra in constraint manage ment with the modern day constraint resolution. It will be further endeavoured to understand the lacunae in the present day approach and investigate the Arthashastra for solutions. Thereafter, the paper will focus on assessing the perceived link between economic power of the state and the military power and how one is derived from the other. The resolution of the economic constraints as practiced during Kautilyas time and in the modern times will also be discussed.7. Methods of Data Collection. There are many books written translating the Arthashastra. Modern Warfare strategy has many parallels in the theories as propounded by Kautilya. Research on this topic will be mostly based on the translations of Arthashastra and its relevance with the modern day approach to the resolution of the economic constraints in the war waging potential of the nation state. Sources are likely to include the following-(a) Books written by eminent authors and translation of the Arthashastra by various au thors.(b) Articles in periodicals and Journals.(c) Reports of International strategists and researchers on Arthashastra.(d) Websites featuring proceedings of various conferences and meetings on the subject.(f) Papers published or presented by various organisations on the subject.8. Organisation of the Dissertation. This study is envisaged to be organised under the following chapters-(a) Introduction.(b) Methodology.(c) Constraints in warfare -Drawing parallels with Arthashastra.(d) Arthashastra approach to economics of war.(e) Derivation of Military power from economic power.(f) Resolution of economic constraints to war potential.(g) ConclusionCHAPTER IIICONSTRAINTS IN WARFARE DRAWING PARALLELS WITH ARTHASHASTRA1. Interests of the nation state. The behavior of a nation-state is rooted in the pursuit, protection, and promotion of its interests. The interests of the nation state are to be accurately identified to understand much of its behavior vis--vis other states and actors in th e international system. All states have common interests like its territory, its people, and its sovereignty. While forces outside their own boundaries affect all countries large and powerful, small and weak, a certain level of sovereignty is critical to the notion of national interests. A country that is unable to exercise effective control over its territory and its peoples, relatively free from the intrusion of other nation-states into its internal affairs, is lacking in this critical element of sovereignty. War is an instrument of national policy, albeit a violent one.2. Arthashastra view point. Kautilyas Arthashastra was a science of politics intended to teach a wise king how to govern. In this work, Kautilya offers wide-ranging and truly fascinating discussions on war and diplomacy, including his wish to have his king become a world conqueror, his analysis of which kingdoms are natural allies and which are inevitable enemies, his willingness to make treaties he knew he would b reak, his doctrine of silent war or a war of assassination against an unsuspecting king, his approval of secret agents who killed enemy leaders and sowed discord among them, his view of women as weapons of war, his use of religion and superstition to bolster his troops and demoralize enemy soldiers, the spread of disinformation, and his humane treatment of conquered soldiers and subjects.3. Kautilya thought there was a science of warfare, presumably part of a larger science of politics. Kautilya advised the king not to leave military matters entirely to others Infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants should carry out practice in the arts outside (the city) at sun-rise. The king should constantly attend to that, and should frequently inspect their arts.9 Open war is obvious, and concealed war is what we call guerrilla warfare, but silent war is a kind of fighting that no other thinker could propound and thus Kautiliya was much ahead of his times and this makes his thinking relevant even today. Silent war is a kind of warfare with another kingdom in which the king and his ministersand unknowingly, the peopleall act publicly as if they were at peace with the opposing kingdom, but all the while secret agents and spies are assassinating important leaders in the other kingdom, creating divisions among key ministers and classes, and spreading propaganda and disinformation.4. Kautilya advised the king that When he is superior in troops, when secret instigations are made (in the enemys camp), when precautions are taken about the season, (and) when he is on land suitable to himself, he should engage in an open fight. In the reverse case, (he should resort to) concealed fighting.125. Overriding the constraints. Speaking of justice to an enemy about to conquer is the last tactic of the weak, willing to try all tactics, even desperate ones, Kautilya made up a powerful speech to be given by a weak king to the king about to conquer, a speech offering a mixture of moral exho rtation and arguments based on the self-interest of the conqueror. In this speech, Kautilya depicted an envoy saying to the conquering king that he should accept a treaty and pay regard to his spiritual and material well-being that conquering a kingdom willing to surrender on reasonable terms is an impious act that battle is not in the conquering kings self-interest, since to fight with brave men who have given up all hope of life is a rash deed and the conqueror will lose troops and material good that such a conquest will only unite his enemies all the more that the conquering kings enemies are only waiting for him to be weakened in order to attack that he himself is risking death that war itself in which men on each side die is an impious act and that he should not listen to enemies masquerading as friends who are giving him false advice as to his real self-interest.13 Kautilya demonstrated the realities of diplomacy and war as well as the ineffectiveness of moral pleas when confr onted by a superior power. Kautilya wanted legions, but he wanted them preceded by elephants, which acted in the ancient world a bit like modern tanks.6. Kautilya considered the treasury most valuable in raising an army, procuring equipment (including elephants), and preparing for war. After the treasury and the army, Kautilya focused on the importance of the fort, on which depends the treasury, the army, silent war, restraint of ones own party, use of armed forces, receiving allied troops, and warding off enemy troops and forest tribes. And in the absence of a fort, the treasury will fall into the hands of enemies, those with forts are not exterminated.157. Constraint resolution. Kautilya was consistent in ranking the importance of the treasury, the army, and forts, but it seems that the people, or a popular army, are the most important of all. As he put it, one should seek a fortress with men.198. Kautilya apparently believed that an army of kshatriyas was best warriors were suppo sed to find their highest duty and pleasure by dying in battle. Kautilya clearly argued that sections of the army should consist mostly of persons from the same region, caste or profession. It was a very clever idea to be mooted as common sense, shows that he is suggesting that men of an army should know one another, that an army of friends fighting side by side is the most difficult to defeat. On the subject of the kings location during battle, for example, he wrote A bare army, without standards, consisting of warriors related as fathers, sons and brothers, should be the place for the king. An elephant or a chariot should be the vehicle for the king, guarded by cavalry. (Kautilya wanted a man who looked like the king to lead the army into battle.) And thus, a kings power, for Kautilya, is in the end tied to the power and popular energy of the people, without which a king can be conquered, for not being rooted among his subjects, a king becomes easy to uproot.20 Although Kautilya w rote of using money to raise an army and even of purchasing heroic men, he was not advocating mercenaries who fought only for pay, but he was merely outlining the cost of paying, supplying, and feeding soldiers. He believed that hereditary troops are better than hired troops in other words, troops made of men born in the kingdom and thus loyal to the king since birth are better than strangers fighting for money.9. Contemporary school of thought. While military power may be the primary tool a nation uses to wage war, it is not the only one available. Military power, together with economic and political power, may be used to impose ones will upon an opponent. These other elements of national power, such as economic or political, are linked with military action at the national strategic level and passed to the operational and tactical levels of military actions through constraints or limitations on the use of force. Nevertheless, these other elements of power are not fully integrated a t the lower levels of war. In the Marxist tradition, Svechin included the possibility of war on economic and social fronts as well as on a military front. 21 The actions along all fronts must be fully integrated and in accord with the political goals of the struggle. The use of diplomatic efforts to preclude and enemy alliance or a second hostile (military) front and economic efforts to insure sufficient financial resources for the conduct of combat operations.10. While Kautilya had propounded the postulates for constraint management in warfare in the ancient times but the relevance with the contemporary thought is startling. Military power being only one of the instruments of national power has been highlighted by Kautilya and the same thought is holding today. The resolution of the constraints and overriding of the bottlenecks faced by the commander in the battlefield have their genesis in the employment of all the instruments of national power towards conflict resolution and that is why Arthashastra has been regarded as the epitome of statecraft in all the spheres. If decisive military force is used only as a last resort, after extensive diplomatic, economic, political, and even military power short of actual war have failed to break the will of the enemy, a quick and well placed application of military force would leave little opportunity for the implementation of further nonmilitary initiative. One must never lose sight of the overall objective of warfare which is to get the enemy to do ones will. This may be best achieved through a thoughtful and complete linkage of all elements of national power. With that linkage brought down to the operational level, chances for a long-lasting victory will increase dramatically. This is where Arthashastra and the present day war strategy are concomitant.CHAPTER IVARTHASHASTRA APPROACH TO ECONOMICS OF WAR1. Economics of the nation state. Economic power has become a very powerful tool to enhance the capabilities of a n ation and limit those of an adversary. However, as nations become more intertwined through globalisation, they become more vulnerable to disruptions in their economies, manmade or natural, due to reliance on foreign sources of raw materials, components, finished products, or key services. A nation can also use its economy to try to defeat another power. The nation can use its economic power in attempts to destroy a targets capability to take certain actions or destroy its ability to project power. Although physical defeat of the enemy is more often associated with military operations, economic means are also viable to support the elimination of a nations ability to take certain actions.2. A nations ability to provide resources to research, develop, and further educate their people can lead to new applications of science and knowledge to solve problems in other words, technology. Technological advances can replace existing weapon and support systems to enhance or expand war fighting capability. Acquiring technology through a nations own human resources or with capital resources can allow the nation to make great leaps in economic progress.3. Arthashastra view of economy as precursor to military power. Kautilya emphasised that, the three kinds of powers intellectual, compelling, motivating are essentially and unavoidably required to be developed and employed in a manner that they complement each other. None can be used in isolation. According to Kautilya the main aim of any state is to increase ones power, mainly at the cost of the natural enemy. This increase in power is essentially the first step in the realisation of the ambition to conquer the world. However, Kautilya also specifically mentions that the most important factor that must be weighed before starting is the gain expected from the confrontation and the losses likely to be suffered. Normally, the gain that is to accrue should far outweigh the losses in men, animals and expenses in cash and grains. T hus Kautilya professed a thoughtful approach to the cause of expanding ones kingdom and always kept the focus on resolution of the economic constraints in the war waging capability of the state. He has also stressed that the king is duty bound to ensure, that the people of his kingdom are happy and content, because, a happy kingdom is likely to be prosperous. He further states that a prosperous and wealthy state is unlikely to succumb to another even in case of a conflict.4. Kosa or the Treasury. The fifth most important element of the state is the treasury according to Kautilya. All activities of the state depend on finance and therefore sufficient attention needs to be given to the treasury. Kautilya considered the treasury most valuable in raising an army, procuring equipment (including elephants), and preparing for war. After the treasury and the army, Kautilya focused on the importance of the fort, on which depends the treasury, the army, silent war, restraint of ones own party , use of armed forces, receiving allied troops, and warding off enemy troops and forest tribes. Kautilya lays down various causes that may contribute to the growth or reduction of the treasury. Kautilya says The wealth of the state shall be one acquired lawfully either by inheritance or by the kings own efforts. He further adds that the treasury should be rich enough to withstand any calamity especially when the state has no income for a long time.5. Managing the economy for power Arthashastra approach. Management of the state necessitated realism, not idealism. It required the prudence and precise calculation of measures undertaken alongside their short and long-term consequences, which formulated the theoretical beginnings of economicsWealth will slip away from that childish man who constantly consults the stars the onlyguiding star of wealth is itself what can the stars of the sky do? Man, without wealth, does not get it even after a hundred attempts. Just as elephants are neede d to catch elephants, so does wealth capture more wealth.22Public welfare was contingent upon the strength of the state. The latter was achieved byinternal development or territorial expansion, both of which were realized through power.24 Hence, the prime motive of the state was the never-ending pursuit of artha. It is only after dedicating its energies to this end, can the state or king then move on to fulfilling dharma and kama. As such, the Arthashastra provides extensive coverage on the overall economy, which includes infrastructure (roadwork, irrigation, forestry, and fortification), weights and measurements, labor and employment, commerce and trade, commodities and agriculture, land use and property laws, money and coinage, interest rates and loan markets, tariffs and taxes, and government expenditures and the treasury. The high level of detail dedicated to these areas demonstrates the remarkable organisation and centralisation of the state idealised in the Arthashastra, and i t also supports the view that the information contained in the text is a compilation of works that have endured over long periods of trial and error.6. The Arthashastra is surprisingly calculated on every minute detail and economic function the exact number of panas25 is provided for every salaried position, legal ramification, commodity, and livestock. Economics was regulated through such central planning and the highly detailed attempts at identifying the optimal amount for every economic function stresses this constant strive towards efficiently improving the overall utility and welfare of society. Along with prudence and careful calculation, the state is advised to be extremely active or energetic in managing the economy, as the Arthashastra states that, The root of material well-being is activity, of material disaster its reverse. In the absence of activity, there is certain destruction of what is obtained and of what is not yet received. By activity reward is obtained, and on e also secures abundance of riches.Similarly, a different verse in the same chapter advocates the direction of such activity towards improving public welfare. Though seemingly liberal and humanitarian, this too had a very important economic basis. Hence, dedicating resources to the lower rungs of society also strengthened the peripheries of the state, which in turn actuated territorial expansion. Furthermore, providing amenities for the poor masses indirectly stimulated population growth, and thus, the overall growth of the state and economy in the long run. Hence, there is a lot of truth in the verses in which the Arthashastra states that it is the people who constitute a kingdom like a barren cow, a kingdom without people yields nothing. The emphasis on population growth for indirectly achieving economic prosperity is also hinted elsewhere in the text, in which the Arthashastra strongly prohibits premarital sex and adultery and instead encourages fertility via rewards and punishme nts framed within the legal system. Central planning was directed towards maintaining stability, order, and efficiency in the economy.7. Kautilyas Principle and Aim of Economy Artha can therefore be summed up as Peace can be maintained by making war difficult and costly for the enemy through the balance of power achieved through alliances.8. Contemporary perspective. Whilst the basis of exerting power of any country has been that of expansion in the last twenty odd years the focus has shifted from territorial expansion to one of economic expansion. There are a number of examples of countries or coalitions trying to exert pressure on other countries to ensure the protection of their own economic interests. The engagements between all the countries of the world bear testimony to the fact that almost all parties have been trying to protect their own interests in dealing with others. The principles enumerated by Kautilya in his policy of Samdhi or Treaty have almost universal applicatio n today. Countries today are indulging in more and more treaties or accords than ever before to safeguard their own interests.9. Kautilya also mentions that war should be declared as a last resort and that all other means like sama, dana, and bheda (conciliation, gifts/bribes, dissension) should be implemented towards averting war. In other words Kautilya prefers putting pressure on the enemy without breaking the peace. These very principles have been laid down in Chapter I of the United Nations Charter, where article I states To maintain international peace and security, and to that end to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace.10. This brin gs forth the justification of the well being of the society as the predominant factor since the ancient times till date. Also, the diversion of the resources meant for the well being of the society towards the war waging potential without the exploitation of all the options towards resolution is being despised upon. This was relevant during Kautilyas times and is as relevant today. Though economy is a major constraint in the war waging potential of a nation state, and all efforts are made by the state to strengthen this instrument of national power prior to gaining the military ascendency, it is also proving to be a major restraint in controllong the expansionist attitude of states since ancient times.CHAPTER VDERIVATION OF MILITARY POWER FROM ECONOMIC POWER1. Economic power. Economic power can be defined broadly as the capacity to influence other states through economic means. It is composed of a countrys industrial base, natural resources, capital, technology, geographic position , health system and education system.2. Military power. Military power is the capacity to use force or the threat of force to influence other states. Components of military power include number of divisions, armaments, organisation, training, equipment, readiness, deployment and morale.3. Power is an elusive concept. In the historical perspective, military power has been paramount and economic power a luxury. This has slowly changed to the point that the two roles have become interchangeable. A countrys military capability is derived from its economic capacity. A countrys economic capacity also de

Biography of Primo Levi: Vanadium

Biography of Primo Levi VanadiumVanadium The Periodic T open (Primo Levi)Annerita NgPrimo Levi was a Jewish chemist and source born in Italy. The majority of his writings revolved rigorously his stupefy surviving the Holocaust of adult male War II, some with a heavy subtext of chemistry. angiodecadesin converting enzyme of his books entitled The Periodic Table is a memoir of his life collated in 21 chapters, each of which is abandoned the title of an element that is somehow woven intrinsi identifyy into the story. In chapter 20, called Vanadium, Levi does a seamless job of tying in the chemistry he learns with past personal experiences that plague his mind.In 1941, after Italy had entered World War II as an ally of Germany, Levi accepted a job at a mine in which he was to extract nickel to abet the production of weaponry for the Germans2. He then worked in Milan with a former acquaintance from university, before reverting to Turin in 1943. He became involved with an Itali an tendentious group when he returned to Turin after Italy became occupied by the Germans. Levi was captured and sent to a transit camp before world deported to a Monowitz-Auschwitz camp. The Buna Werke plant nearby the camp, gush by German chemical industry corporation I.G. Farben, focused on the production of synthetic rubber and made use of slave labour from the dumbness camp. Thanks to his professional abilities, Levi secured a position in the Buna Werke laboratory, which ultimately led to his survival in the camp. He was freed in 1945, el steady months after he was deported to the preoccupation camp.He began working different chemistry related jobs not long after his liberation and eventually obtained a job in a create business as a chemist and technical director2. It was in this job that Levi based his short story Vanadium from his book The Periodic Table. eon working for the company a shipment of resin for varnishes is received, which Levi then learns does not dry pro perly when mixed with the required chemical agent. He then detect that the supplier is a descendant of I.G. Farben, who operated the Buna Werke plant during his stay at the concentration camp. After a series of letters sent to their representative, Levi realizes that the representative, Doctor muller, was an acquaintance of his from the Buna Werke laboratory.This alliance was set off after a misspelling of the name of a chemical, the same word which stamp often mispronounced while working at the Burna Werke laboratory. Memories of his experience working in the laboratory were triggered. Levi explains that Muller, along with other men, would often visit the laboratory he worked at to give himself and two other prisoners strict instructions. Muller only spoke to him a few clock, but during one of those times he had continuously mispronounced naphthenate as naptenate. Levi similarly remembered Muller giving him permission to paring twice a week (as opposed to the rule of prisoner s shaving once a week), and similarly provided him with a pair of leather shoes. He also renowned that Muller was rather ignorant to the events occurring at the concentration camp nearby the laboratory, as he asked Levi why he looked so anxious working at the factory.As Levi sent letters to Muller regarding the f uprightnessed shipment, he had also sent him a private letter in set up to confirm if he was the same Muller he met at the Buna Werke Laboratory. While he waited for Mullers confirmation he begun testing the instructions given to him in order to cure the shipment of resin. Levi had been directed by Muller to add 0.1% of quint naphthenate to the resin in order for it to dry properly. Vanadium naphthenate acts to accelerate the drying process of the resin3,4. It is able to protect the inner material and keep it undamaged from oxidation by forming oxide layers. This occurs as the hydrocarbon ring of the fivesome compound reacts with the oxygen in air3. He discoered that the Italian version of the vanadium naphthenate was not as effective as the German kind, and accordingly he requested for a shipment of German naphthenate.Muller had replied to his private letter a while later, confirming that he was the Muller of Buna and requested to meet with Levi in order to rise above the past amid them. Levi, however, was not so keen for this meeting, stating that he had no past that selected resolving. He avoided this topic al unneurotic and, instead, Muller spoke of their friendship as they worked together in the laboratory of the camp. Levi recalled no friendship between the two men, but realised that the other had rescue his life by selecting him in to work at the laboratory. He assumed that Muller had perchance fabricated a convenient past for himself. In a sense, the variable effectiveness of the Italian and German versions of the vanadium naphthenate can be associated with the different versions of Levi and Mullers memories of the camp.A few days la ter, Levi had received a letter from the supplier apologising for the inconvenience he, and the company he worked for, had suffered. However from this disruption they had realised it would be more appropriate and convenient if they themselves integrated the vanadium naphthenate into the resin before de proceedring them.Here, we see the success that prevails from the deductive processes of chemists and the elements of underage industrial chemistry. After the problem was encountered with the shipment of resin, Levis immediate action was to contact the source/supplier. The buyer-supplier connection is necessary for the industrial chemistry department, especially in when put unders arise. These connections can be somewhat difficult when the buyer and supplier are located for apart, such as in Levis case. He was then given instructions in which he would test the effect of a required chemical and observe and confirm if it was the solution to the problem. In other words, trials were to be conducted to settle down the cause of the issue. In this instance, materials monitoring deviceing is helpful for quality control and to review the materials and the processes they endure. In Levis case, a positive outcome was reached as the supplying company recognised a more convenient route to take with their resin product in order to avoid emerging issues.At freshman, Levi refused to exculpate Muller despite his high gear respect for the man. He could not fathom the idea of meeting Muller with open arms after all he had to suffer through. He did not hate Muller, rather he harboured an abhorrence toward the Germans in general, and assumed Muller a substitute for those who harmed the Jews. But after come on contemplation he became sympathetic to Mullers plight as he tried to clear his conscience of any wrong doing. Levi then began drawing off a letter to thank Muller for selecting him and even mentioned a readiness for forgiveness. On the same evening he received a phon e call from Muller asking to meet with him in the near future. The language barrier helps prevent him from making his feelings of distaste known. He carelessly agreed to the meeting as he was caught off guard. However, the meeting would not occur as only a week later Levi disc all overed that Muller has passed away unexpectedly.This chapter provided an insight of the kinship between his chemical career and other aspects of his life, such as his writing career. Chemistry seems to be quintessential to his life. Levi finds a brilliant way of linking his chemical profession to his personal and social experiences, showing that he was deeply invested in his profession. Even in the Auschwitz concentration camp, he couldnt escape it, and it near probably saved his life. He continued working as a chemical professional after he was freed from Auschwitz despite the obvious psychological trauma he suffered.From this chapter of his book, it is seen that Levi correlates the characteristics of v anadium naphthenate to the important features of his story. And although this unique chapter is mainly about his personal experience and his reflection on the injustices handed to him, it does contain factual information on the chemical it is named after. Levi also provides an brain of the logical manner in which chemists must think inwardly the industry and the elements involved in the processes of industrial chemistry proving how communication is key inside the world of industrial chemistry. Without a doubt Levi has a very powerful way with words, intertwining his personal tale with scientific principles.ReferencesLevi, P., (1986). Vanadium. In The Periodic Table, 1st ed. Abacus bailiwick Books Ltd, pp.211 223.Patruno, N. (n.d.). Primo Levi Surviving the Haulocast. online Bryn Mawr College. obtainable at http//www.brynmawr.edu/italian/holoc/essays/surv_hol.htm Accessed 12 Dec. 2014.Chemical Land 21, (n.d.). Vanadyl Naphthenate. online Available at http//www.chemical impose21 .com/industrialchem/organic/VANADYL NAPHTHENATE.htm Accessed 15 Dec. 2014.Kemi Swedish Chemicals Agency, (n.d.). Metal Naphthenates. online Available at http//apps.kemi.se/flodessok/floden/kemamne_eng/metallnaftenater_eng.htm Accessed 15 Dec. 2014.Sumatran Orangutan Threats and Rehabilitation StrategiesSumatran Orangutan Threats and Rehabilitation StrategiesThe Sumatran orangg is widely considered as the most threatened species of great ape Durrell Wildlife saving Trust 2006. It is estimated that there are approximately 6,500 individuals stay in Sumatra (Wich et al, 2008), and the species is listed as Critically Endangered under the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List (Singleton et al, 2008). This is due not only to the small remaining existence, but to the fact that the population has declined by over 80% in the last 75 years (3 generations) (Wich et al, 2008). The Sumatran orangutan is endemic to Sumatra (considered a separate species from the Bornea n orangutan (Mittermeier et al, 2009)), with its range restricted to a small area of come apart home ground in the North of the island. Historically, the species had a much larger range across Sumatra, but the majority of the population is now constrained to the province of Aceh (Singleton et al, 2008). This condensed population actor that we can expect the population to show more intense com front-runnerition in spite of appearance the species for viands and resources, causing an join on in mortality over time (Marshall et al, 2009). The orangutan is an arboreal species, it is extremely adapted to spend all of its time above the ground, and primarily inhabits lowland tropical forest and peat-swamp forest ecosystems (DWCT, 2006). These traits exhaust left them extremely vulnerable to habitat close, the major threat to orangutans in Sumatra. Heavy record of the orangutans natural habitat means that only less competent habitat remains for them (Wich et al 2008). In additio n, the majority of the orangutan population in Sumatra were make outside of saved areas, and many within potential enter areas (Singleton et al, 2008). It is clear that the Sumatran orangutan is under severe pressure, and many threats need to be addressed in order to attempt to restore the population.ThreatsDeforestation and atomizationBoth legal and illegal logging are a major threat to the Sumatran orangutan. The species main habitat, primary lowland forest, has been devastated in the last 30 years due to large case forest conversion to agricultural land and crude oil ornament plantations (Singleton et al, 2008). One study between 1990 and 2000 recorded a 13% loss of orangutan habitat forest (Gaveau et al, 2007). Another study by van Schaik et al (2001) found that during the late 1990s habitat support 100 orangutans was lost each year in the Leuser Ecosystem in Sumatra. This habitat loss was largely due to legal logging concessions from the Indonesian government for oil palm conversion (van Schaik et al, 2001). The orangutans habitat of lowland forest has been targeted due to the fact that it is easily and cheaply accessible for logging (Campbell-Smith et al, 2011). The forest is being destroyed in order to provide hardwood to developed nations, providing income to boost Indonesias economy, as well as to clear land for agricultural conversion and expanding human populations (DWCT, 2006). Within the last cristal the scale of logging in Sumatra has continued to expand. This was partly due to the surge in demand for timber since the 2004 tsunami (Singleton et al, 2008), as well as a repose agreement in the Aceh province. A moratorium on logging during the conflict meant a lower rate of forest loss, however a peace accord in 2005 led to a lift of the moratorium and re-issuing of logging permits in Aceh (Singleton et al, 2008). In addition, the history of political unrest in the province has greatly impacted past conservation efforts (Marshall et al, 2009 ). This recorded habitat loss is the main contributor to the species declining population.orangutans are particularly vulnerable due to the fact that they are an arboreal species. They spend the majority of their lives in the canopy to avoid the threat of tigers, meaning the species is restricted to areas untouched by deforestation. However, the spread of human settlements and development of new road systems has caused severe fragmentation of their remaining habitat. In addition, a proposal for the Ladia Galaska road network in Aceh has been put forward, and if allowed willing quickly fragment the last remnants of habitat (Singleton et al, 2008). The remaining forest within the orangutans range cannot support its prior ecosystems, and further deforestation and fragmentation could lead to multiple extinctions. Indonesia has converted over 3 million hectares of land to oil palm plantations, with plans to convert a further 4 million (Brown and Jacobson, 2005). However areas of oil pal m monoculture only supports 20% of its previous diversity (Marchal and Hill, 2009). Even small scale selective logging can reduce local orangutan densities by as much as 60% (Rao and van Schaik, 1997), which shows how sensitive the species are to the destruction of habitat. The threats to orangutans from deforestation are made greater by the fact that the Indonesian government supports development (orangutan National Action Plan, 2007), and are indeed willing to issue large numbers of logging permits. Furthermore, the decentralisation of forest management in 2001 has aided the rise in forest destruction, as it means that regional land use plans are made without any though for conservation (The Ministry of Forestry, 2009). The increase in human population also increases pressure, as greater resource degradation occurs to meet an ever increasing demand for timber and agricultural land. A paper by Robertson and van Schaik (2001) suggests that ultimate causal factor of deforestation i s corruption, as well as feeble compliance with legislation and poor law enforcement. Corruption is the most difficult threat to overcome, but law enforcement and compliance need to be improved in order to have a chance of protecting the remaining orangutan population.Other threatsAs well as being severely threatened by habitat destruction, orangutans are also in high demand for the pet trade across Indonesia. The central demand is for babe orangutans, considered as good pets as they do not reach full size until the age of 7, and are known for their trait of human imitation. Currently some 200-500 infants are taken from the natural state for the pet trade each year in Kalimantan (Nijman, 2005). No data is available for the Sumatran orangutan, but demand for pets is high in both Borneo and Sumatra, and the number of infants being removed from the wild is unsustainable. Wild orangutans are also threatened by their conflict with humans, and they are at times killed as pests. They ar e forced to encroach upon agricultural land as a result of habitat destruction, but are considered pests by farmers and often killed when found raiding crops at forest edges. In a study interviewing farmers in northern Sumatra, 28% of those interviewed feared orangutans. They also on average believed orangutans to be the third most frequent, and the fourth most destructive pest (Campbell-Smith et al, 2010). This shows that a high proportion of orangutans are being forced to raid crops due to destruction of habitat and food sources, but also that the human-orangutan conflict whitethorn not easily be reconciled as it is largely driven by fear. Finally, the current small temper of the remaining orangutan population means it is highly vulnerable to stochastic events such as natural disasters, random genetic fluctuations and disease outbreak (Caughley, 1994). The species comparatively slow reproductive rate (25 years per generation) and the ongoing vulnerability to habitat reduction mea ns it is at constant risk of extinction.Past and current convalescence strategiesRehabilitation centresDuring the 1970s the Indonesian government began to demonstrate reserves for orangutans, which are now seen across Sumatra. The reserves act as replacement centres where orphans are taught how to live in the wild and then returned, but also as sanctuaries for individuals unable to be reintroduced. Individuals found in logging areas, as well as orphans and orangutans confiscated by the forestry department, are moved to these sanctuaries (DWCT, 2006). It is estimates that around 63-97% of intakes by orangutan centres are under 7 years old (Russon, 2009). The orangutans are treated medically until their health is regained, as they are often in bad condition. For example many have gunshot and machete wounds, scars from tight chains, and internal damage, as well as behavioral and psychological damage as a result of prolonged isolation, abuse, and abnormal associations with humans ( Russon, 2009). In addition many orangutans arrive carrying human diseases such as Tuberculosis, as well as significantly high parasite loads (Russon, 2009) after living in close proximity with humans. Once treated, the orangutans are taught bionomical and social skills, and gradually weaned from human contact in order for them to be able to live independently in the wild once released (Beck et al, 2007). When the rehabilitation centres were initially established, uncertainty over orangutan numbers meant that rehabilitation programmes concentrated on releasing individuals into areas with existing wild populations to supplement those that were too small (Russon, 2009). mingled with 1973 and 2000, 218 orangutans were released at Bohorok in Gunung Leuser National Park, Sumatra, to supplement the rapidly declining population. The Sumatran orangutan Conservation Programme (SOCP) is one of the orangutan rehabilitation centres in Sumatra, but it also concentrates on other aspects of oran gutan conservation. The SOCP rehabilitation centre and quarantine site is in the Medan region, and individuals are released in Bukit Tigapuluh National Park. Over ten years, 190 orangutans have been through quarantine, with 125 individuals released into Bukit Tigapuluh, and 3 wild births by reintroduced females (DWCT, 2006). In addition the programme is helping to improve law enforcement through providing facilities for confiscated or unwanted orangutans. The handiness of sanctuaries means that illegally unploughed individuals are more readily reported (DWCT, 2006). A mobile education unit from SOCP is used as an educational tool to teach conservation and the importance of orangutan tolerance, particularly in human-orangutan conflict areas. This provides a vital part of the orangutan conservation effort, as building understanding within local communities will help to reduce threats. Additionally, the programmes links with the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust means they also ha ve access to the latest research in orangutan medicine, husbandry and captive care (DWCT, 2006).Protected AreasThere are many protected areas across Sumatra, however illegal logging still occurs within the majority of them. The Leuser Ecosystem Conservation area, established in 1998, is considered a conservation unvoicedhold for orangutan populations (Singleton et al, 2008). It is a 2.6 million hectare area consisting of two National parks and containing around 5,800 (over 85%) of the remaining Sumatran orangutan population (Mittermeier et al 2009). It is the only conservation area within Sumatra with viable populations of the Sumatran orangutan, Sumatran tiger, Sumatran rhino and the Sumatran elephant. This shows that the Leuser Ecosystem Conservation area is highly important in the conservation and protection of the Sumatran orangutan. However, the national park is predominantly a mountainous region, which is highly unsuitable for the lowland orangutan species. This means that mo st of the orangutan population is found outside of park boundaries, leaving them even more vulnerable to habitat destruction. It is estimated that only around 30% of the orangutan population in Sumatra are found within park boundaries (Mittermeier et al, 2009), causing more problems and difficulties for their conservation.LegislationThe Sumatran orangutan was listed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora (CITES) in 1975 (DWCT, 2006). This means that no trade is allowed in live orangutans or orangutan products. The ban was put in place due to the expanding pet trade in Indonesia, and by 1980 over 30,000 orangutans had been killed as result of this trade across Sumatra and Borneo (DWCT, 2006). In addition the species has been protected under Indonesian domestic law (Singleton et al, 2008). Act no.5, which was made law in 1990, legally protects the orangutan from hunting throughout its range. The Act also aims to protect en vironmental support structures and preserve biodiversity in Indonesia. However, a ban on hunting is extremely difficult to enforce, and current law enforcement of legislation appears to be very weak.Foreign supportMany foreign non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have invested an interest in the future survival of the Sumatran orangutan. For example, the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust based in Jersey joined the effort to conserve Sumatran orangutans in 1968. Durrell has contributed greatly to the survival of the species, engender 7 babies in Jersey for the international Sumatran orangutan breeding programme (DWCT, 2006). The trust also helps by sharing information with orangutan rehabilitation centres, as well as sending experts to the field in Sumatra to help in the rehabilitation process. Some governmental support for the protection of the Sumatran orangutan has also been shown. Through the United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degrada tion in Developing Countries (REDD), the Norwegian government pledged US$1 billion to Indonesia to reduce deforestation rates (Butler et al, 2009).Success of species recovery to dateThe Sumatran orangutan has been listed as Critically Endangered by the IUCN since 2000 when it was first categorised (Singleton et al, 2008). The species data was re-examined in both 2007 and 2008, and in both cases it was found to still be Critically Endangered (Singleton et al, 2008). The population in Sumatra has been decreasing since the 1900s, with the most recent decline from 7,300 individuals in 2004 (Singleton et al, 2004), to around 6,500 in 2008 (Wich et al, 2008). It appears that, despite efforts to restore orangutan populations over the last 40 years, the species recovery has been unsuccessful to date. The predominant tenability behind the continued decline of orangutan populations is the sustained level of deforestation, allowed by legal logging permits, illegal logging, poor law enforcemen t and ultimately corruption. Legislation is futile and reserves are not sufficiently policed, allowing commercial forestry to continue to occur even within protected areas. The rate of illegal logging to legal logging is 41 (DWCT, 2006), meaning that without drastic improvements in law enforcement orangutans will remain at constant threat of extinction. Furthermore, despite the illegalisation of trade in orangutans, the pet trade for the species is still booming throughout Indonesia. Although the forestry department are responsible for confiscating many illegally owned orangutans for reintroduction, a huge proportion of individuals remain in human possession. The current level of protection for orangutans is not enough to combat the threats to the species.The most successful recovery attempt has been through the rehabilitation centres, but even they have a limited capacity. The rehabilitation process is only able to reintroduce a relatively small number of individuals, with one cen tre returning 125 orangutans to the wild over a ten years period. Over the same 10 year period only 3 wild births from ex-captive mothers occurred, and a high infant mortality was found at many release sites (Russon, 2009). Several observations of released orangutans at Bohorok release site showed individuals returning ill, underweight or hurt by wild counterparts (Dellatore, 2009). It is clear that there are still some problems with the rehabilitation and reintroduction process, and room to expand projects to a larger scale. However, it is also evident that these projects are the most successful aspect of the species recovery to date. The centres carry out highly important medical and genetic screening of individuals. orangutans are susceptible to human diseases, and the risk of spreading disease is great, so medical screenings help prevent disease from entering wild populations. Genetic screening is also highly valuable, as it helps monitor genetic diversity and maintain a health y population. Rehabilitation centres also play an important role in orangutan welfare, allowing the confiscation of poorly kept individuals and providing safe places to go (Russon, 2009). In this aspect, they are an important part of the limited law enforcement available. Finally, the centres provide vital infrastructure and logistical support in the translocation of wild orangutans away from deforested areas (Beck et al, 2007).Recommendations for future management practicesIt is estimated that if the current rate of orangutan decline is sustained, we could see a further 50% loss of the population within ten years (Mittermeier et al, 2009). In order to ensure the Sumatran orangutans future, drastic action needs to be taken. Conservation of the species relies on immediate improvement of forest and wildlife laws, an increase in consideration for biodiversity in land use planning, and greater law enforcement effectiveness.The implementation of patrols to prevent illegal activity is vit al as the first tread to stopping illegal logging (Mittermeier et al 2009). In order to do this regular funding is required to put operations in place, and a meeting place for monitoring the enforcement of current legislation needs to be established. It is also important to implement anti-hunting patrols, as even very low hunting levels have strong deleterious effects (1% annual hunting rate sustainable) (Marshall et al, 2009). Patrols will also stem some of the supply to the pet trade, and attempt to reduce levels of illegal logging. In addition it is advised to temporarily halt legal logging and forest conversion, as well as road development plans (Mittermeier et al, 2009) in order to establish a more viable orangutan population. However, it is unlikely that the Indonesian government would halt development plans as it is essential for the countrys economic growth. A final step in the improvement of law enforcement would be the establishment of more patrols to confiscate illegal ly owned and poorly kept individuals to be taken to rehabilitation centres. This means that it is also vital to ensure the future expansion of rehabilitation centres across Sumatra. It is important to build capacity within current centres, as well as establishing new release sites across the island to restore populations in areas outside the Aceh province. Funding and volunteers would be required to expand the reintroduction projects across Sumatra.The future of orangutans also relies on the provide of protected areas and reserves with strict controls to prevent illegal activity from still occurring. Again, this would involve the supply of regular reserve patrols and stringent regulation. National park perimeters should also be increased to enhance the conservation areas. It is important to include large areas of forest below 1000 metres above sea level within the protected areas (Singleton et al, 2008), as this is the orangutans primary habitat. Habitat restoration is also needed within the protected areas in order to make it suitable for orangutan reintroduction. In addition, the re-establishment of habitat corridors is greatly needed (Robertson and van Schaik, 2001) to improve genetic flow between fragmented populations. Improving habitat connectivity will increase genetic diversity and therefore make the species more adaptable to its constantly changing environment. The conversion of any remaining orangutan habitat to other uses should be strictly prohibited immediately, as only a very small fraction remains. In order to do this, alternative livelihoods will need to be provided to many local communities which may have relied on the land. This should be done by employing locals in orangutan conservation projects, helping with rehabilitation, habitat restoration and law enforcement. Not only will this provide an income for communities, it will provide an economic incentive to protect orangutans, and may potentially start to change local opinion of the spec ies. Building tolerance of the species and changing attitudes towards them is an important part of their conservation. It is important to address the human-orangutan conflict, especially as in the future more orangutans are likely to be living in close proximity to humans. In Batang Serangan in Northern Sumatra, a small group of orangutans were found to live in peaceful co-existence with farmers. The landscape is made up of profuse natural forest, smallholder farms and oil palm monoculture plantations (Campbell-Smith et al, 2011). Although not an ideal habitat for orangutans, the mixed landscape was still suitable for the small group to live. Once tolerance of the species has grown, it would be possible to begin establishing small populations in these mixed agro-forest systems which occur across Sumatra. The ultimate aim is to create a landscape of primary lowland forest within protected areas, joined by corridors through major agricultural land. With the addition of further releas e sites, a connected habitat and better law enforcement, it is possible to establish viable populations across the island of Sumatra.ConclusionIn order to reduce the current threats to the Sumatran orangutan immediate action needs to be taken. The species critically endangered status and its vulnerability to habitat destruction mean it is at great risk of extinction if further protection measures are not put in place. By following some of the recommendations laid out above, and increasing the level of support for orangutan projects, the species may yet have a future.

GALILEO :: essays research papers

Galileo Galilei was born on February 15, 1564 to Vincenzo Galilei and Giulia degli Ammannati in Pisa, Italy. His father, Vincenzo, was a musician. Galileo was the first of six children (though about people believe seven). His family was non rich but they were of nobility. His family moved to Florence in the early 1570s.Galileo never married but he did have a skeleton relationship with Marina Gamba. He met her on one of his trips to Venice. She lived with Galileo and bore three children to him. His two daughters, Virginia and Livia were sent to convents. In 1610 Galileo moved to Florence where he took a position at The tap of the Medici family. He left his son, Vincenzio with Marina. In 1613 Marina married Giovanni Bartoluzzi. Vincenzio joined his father in Florence. In 1581 Galileo went to study at the University of Pisa. His father hoped he would study medicine there. Galileo did not study medicine there but he did study the pendulum. According to legend Galileo watched a suspe nded lamp swing back and forth in the cathedral of Pisa. Galileo did not make his most notable discovery about the pendulum until 1602. He discovered that the time in which a pendulum swings back and forth did not cypher on the arc or isochronism of the swing.At the University of Piza Galileo studied physics. He mainly studied and eventually disproved Aristotle approch on physics. Aristotlians believed that heavier objects fell through a medium fast-breaking than lighter objects. Galileo disproved the idea by asserting that all objects (no matter the density) fell at the same rate in a vacuum. To be sure of this Galileo performed more experiments. In most he dropped objects from a certain height. In an early experiment Galileo rolled two balls down a slightly sloped agglomerate and then he would determine their positions after equal time intervals. He then wrote a book about his discoveries called De Muto which means On Motion.In 1592 Galileo was appointed professor of mathemat ics at the University of Padua. While there he often visited a place called the Arsenal where Venetian ships were docked. Galileo was always interested in mechanicle devices and this was the perfect place to study them. While at the Arsenal Galileo became interested in nautical devices especially the sector and ship building. In 1593 Galileo was faced with the hassle involving the placement of oars in the galleys.